Interest Groups Essay Example for Free

Interest Groups Essay They vary considerably in size and ideological perspectives. The strategies and tools employed by interest groups are not static, and they differ depending on the geographical scope of their operations and the resources they have. While many interest groups tend to address a wide range of issues, others deal with distinct issues. The life span of interest groups is also not static. In this case, some groups have long term objectives; hence, they remain active for long duration. For instance, the interest groups that aim at challenging policy issues and politics operate on a long term basis. On the other hand, some groups are usually initiated with an aim of achieving a particular end after which they are dissolved. For example, during elections, many groups usually emerge with an aim of ensuring that the process is handled according to the stipulated guidelines of the electoral process. A representative government is always formulated in manner that facilitates participation of contending interests, and at the same time it tries to mitigate the variance that inexorably accompanies faction competition. In the traditional creation of pluralism, contending interests work together by mobilizing resources and opinions in order to enhance effective formulation and implementation of essential public policies. â€Å"Institutions are formed to accommodate the inevitability of diverse and competing interest from becoming powerful enough to undermine the rights of others† (Wilson, 2009). This process is governed by constitutional provisions, which stipulate the nature of interest groups’ activities. Therefore, many interest groups that work together tend to stabilize political environment, and this enables them to forward their interests to the government. â€Å"This implies that the pluralist vision of politics is an ideal vision of interest group politics and political institutions† (Barber, 1990). The activities conducted by various interest groups can be used to differentiate them. For instance, some of them endeavor to address several public issues, while others have a narrow scope of private interests. There are two distinct types of interest groups, and they can be described as follows. First, we have public interest groups, and they aim at working on issues that benefit the general public. For instance, they support policies that provide equal opportunities that can be enjoyed by everyone in the society. However, the success of public interest groups may not be very substantial at an individual level since they aim at reaching out to many people. â€Å"Some of the major public interest groups in his category are National Taxpayer’s Union and Concerned Women for America† (Orman, 1988). The second category is referred to as private interest groups. These are groups which endeavor to challenge public policies in order to specifically benefit their members or individuals that support their interests. Nonetheless, the objectives and activities of private interests groups should not interfere with the welfare of other individuals. Political self interest is perceived to b e healthy for a political system. In the USA, there is a popular belief that contending interests make the society more successful. This is because bad policies are always eliminated when various groups compete against each other â€Å"Other examples of interest groups include business organizations labor unions, Professional associations, and Non Governmental Organizations† (Grossman, 2002). The Relationship between Interest Groups and Political Parties There is no great disparity between political parties and various interest groups, because they are both composed of individuals having common objectives and opinions. Apart from this, â€Å"they are similar in the sense that they both seek to challenge government institutions, elections, and they all make public policy choices† (Brunell, 2005). Nonetheless, there are significant variations between these two bodies. Generally, interest groups never directly support their own members to contest for public office, especially in a case where economic parameter is concerned. In most cases, interest groups never adopt overt party labels, which electors use to identify and express their political affiliations (Dulilio Wilson, 2011). However, some electors may link particular interest groups with specific parties in a general manner. For example, the Tea Party is often linked with the Republicans and the white conservatives. In the recent past, public interest groups that are ideologically driven have increased considerably (King, 2011). For instance, a there are some groups which have pushed the tax agenda in political circles. Another distinguishing factor is that interest groups have a limited focus, and they only handle specific issues of concern in the public policy. For example, â€Å"interest groups form around specific concerns like environment, free speech, tax reform, and labor standards† (Petracca, 1992). In contrast to this, political parties tend to focus on several issues. Moreover, political parties try to merge some of these facades under one â€Å"big umbrella†. In some circumstances, interest groups seriously struggle against political parties. For instance, some internal rivalries have been witnessed in key political parties that operate in Texas. When elections were conducted in 2000, several environmentalists who were members of the Texas Democratic Party massively supported Ralph Nader, the Green Party candidate, since they felt that Al Gore was less committed toward environmental issues. They labeled him â€Å"not green enough†. On the other hand, some Republicans have tried to make the party conservative by working against some of their Republican colleagues. This indicates that the interest groups tend to favor parties and politicians that support their interests, and they ignore those who are less committed in helping them. Interest groups always aim at maximizing policies, while political parties are usually trying to obtain many Congress seats. These competing interests influence the manner political parties relate with the interest groups. According Thomas Brunell, â€Å"interest groups have a preference as which party controls a majority of seats in Congress, which leads them to direct â€Å"sincere† and electorally useful money to this party† (Hay, 2001) When interest groups offer funds to the â€Å"other† party, they always fund it in a manner that is less effective. Interest groups usually execute this goal by offering strategic funds to this party as follows: provide little financial support particularly to the popular candidates who do not necessarily have to be funded in order to succeed in the elections. They can also choose to fund incumbent candidates who already have political clout. Therefore, even if these groups offer funds to these parties, they always do it in a biased manner, and they favor only the parties that are likely to push forward their interests. These funds enable their preferred candidates to run their campaigns smoothly without experiencing financial hitches. Apart from offering finances, interest groups also provide key information that enables their favorite candidates to be more competitive than other contenders. They also sensitize their preferred candidates on issues that always influence election outcomes. All these services are organized by interest groups with an aim of fulfilling their common objective of influencing election results and policies. The fact that these institutions have a relationship is therefore undeniable. These groups often forge close ties and pursue similar objectives in order to enhance their political clout. Nonetheless, they remain independent, and their nature of operation and design also remain different. â€Å"The space for action, speech and flexibility that is maintained in politics makes them much more political than interest groups† (Grossman, 2002). How Interest Groups Try to Influence the President and the Congress? Although interest groups do not directly have elected members in political offices, they do aim at fixing their members into appointed positions. They normally do this to enable them perform their state functions through mechanisms that support the desired policies of the interests groups that facilitated their appointments. The fact that â€Å"groups† operate as political players has always been recognized and examined, even if not properly understood. The manipulation of legislative processes by groups is a question that has not yet been answered, and it is still being begged. Between the period of the 1970 and 1980s, some â€Å"explosions† were witnessed in Washington, and researchers have wanted to clearly understand them. As many groups emerged in Washington, many people joined them, and the groups increasingly funded parties. The citizens at the same time criticized the roles of interest groups and joined them in large numbers probably to suppress the powerful corporate groups. The role of groups in policy issues seemed to have taken a new dimension, and everyone was keen to see how it happened. Therefore, it can be argued that group manipulation of the Congress can be identified by simply examining the development of legislation that a group is favoring. For instance, a group’s ineffectiveness in legislative process can be measured through its failure to intercept unpopular bills. In general, â€Å"interest group activities predict, at least in part, how far bills will progress through the legislative process† (Brunell, 2005). The term influence as applied in this context is quite narrow from the perspective of interest groups, and it is broad from a congressional perspective. Interest groups perceive influence as a process that should produce good policies or prevent undesirable policies from being adopted. However, a group does not have to obtain policies from the Congress that directly indicate their actual desires; rather a group’s influence is seen when the Congress makes or discards a policy, which is in line with the interests of a group. From a congressional perspective, influence emerging from interest groups can come in several ways. Interest groups are often said to have manipulated the Congress when its members are compelled or encouraged to change the course or provisions of a given bill in order to meet the demands of the interest groups. This influence might come in the form of a change of wording, a passage from a subcommittee, and not passing from a standing committee† (Orman, 1988). In this process, interest groups may lead to the change of legislation, and the president may not have the capacity to reverse the whole process of legislation, even if he does not like the content of the bill. On the other hand, the president can also manipulate the Congress by working closely with the interest groups. As discussed above, the law making process can be indirectly manipulated through elections. For instance, an incumbent President may pass some bills in favor of some groups so that he may get some support from them during the next elections. Besides this, interest groups may support pliable candidates whom they can easily manipulate during the law making processes. This symbiotic relationship between the interest groups and the politicians to some extent affect the capacity of both the president and the Congress to formulate effective laws. Politics in America has become complicated to many politicians. This is because interest groups have managed to seriously entrench themselves in politics and much of their attention has been geared towards influencing the White House. â€Å"Since the American President has come to play an increasingly important role in the public policy process, interest groups and their lobbyists now descend on the presidency with the same vigor as they descend on the congress† (Orman, 1988). In this context, the president is faced with the challenge of fulfilling the needs of the ordinary citizens and the interest groups. Interest groups have faced much criticism especially when it comes to policy issues. Its critics contend that most of the policy issues dealt with by interests groups have no connection to the desires of the public. The leaders of these groups have also been blamed for being dishonest because they always fail to fulfill the demands of their members. The weaknesses of the interests groups have been seen as one of the factors interfering with democracy in the USA. It has also been noted with a lot of concern that some political candidates have been seriously intimidated by some interest groups, and this further affects the reputation of the interest groups. Conclusion  The above discussion indicates that the American government is guided various institutions, which work together with an aim of building a more democratic society. The interest groups have been instrumental in addressing the plight of the public by ensuring that policy issues are handled properly. The effectiveness of the government has also been enhanced by the numerous contending interests. The American government has been able to adopt better policies due to the serious competition that exists among various institutions. These groups have played a fundamental role of widening the democratic space in America. The American government has been influenced by several groups over the years to an extent that some individuals refer to it as â€Å"a world of interest groups†. The interest groups should, therefore remain committed towards enhancing democracy and good governance. And I think those groups have same mission, its to make the government do something right like that should be. for example, national education thinks that the system of lesson in ur country have to be changed because it is not effective, so the collect the data to support their argument, and send it to government, and hope it will influence the policy.

Heritage Tourism On Archaeological Sites In Egypt Tourism Essay

Heritage Tourism On Archaeological Sites In Egypt Tourism Essay Egypt is located in the North- Eastern corner of Africa and South-Western Asia and is commonly known as The Motherland of the World Land of Civilizations and The Greatest Power in Human History being reputable for its 7,000-year-old record of civilization and immense wealth of knowledge (SIS, 2011). Amongst all civilizations and nations, Egypt is known to be one of the worlds oldest tourist destinations, possessing one third of the worlds ancient monuments within its country. Besides its other archaeological and cultural monuments, the discovery of the Pharaonic antiquities long time ago has added a special appeal to Egypt, therefore boosting Egypts tourism industry. However, with the booming increase in Egypts tourism, conflicts and issues starts to surface concerning the management and conservation of the ancient Egyptian archaeological sites and treasures. What defines Egypt is its massive number of archaeological sites that can be found all over the country and of course, its extraordinary architectural and heritage attractions such as the legendary Pyramids of Giza, the world-famous Valley of the Kings and the temple at Abu Simbel. These well-known and remarkable sites are the lifeblood of the countrys tourism industry where it attracts over 2 million visitors annually to Egypt (Boniface and Cooper, 2001). Despite being one of the most highly industrialized country in the Arab region, Egypts petroleum and economy is not sufficient to provide adequate amount of jobs to its population of 73 million (e.g.: Boniface and Cooper, 2001; MINTEL, 2004). It is also mentioned by Weeks and Hetherington (2006) that tourism has been a key factor in Egypts economy for about the last two centuries and over the last generation. It has become a crucial component of the economy and is now the source of 45 percent of the countrys annual foreign currency earnings. Therefore tourism in Egypt plays a critical role of support for its economy where it benefits both the government and to all levels of the society. One of the main components of the tourism industry in Egypt is heritage tourism. Heritage itself as a concept has entered on to a global stage and penetrated into the local, regional and national arena (Burnett, 2001). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) states that heritage and culture have become an important element in almost 40 per cent of all international trips taken (Timothy and Boyd, 2003) and despite of recession, heritage tourism still continued to grow (Hanna, 1993, cited in Timothy and Boyd, 2003). Throughout the world, ancient venues and archaeological monuments have become major tourism attractions (Laws, 2011) and one such destination is Egypt where the impacts of flourishing heritage tourism on ancient archaeological sites are apparent through out the country. However, in spite of the thriving tourism industry in Egypt, conflicts and issues starts to arise that contradicts Egypts own tourism interest. In order to maximize revenue from the tourism industry, Egypt implemented the approach of opening more sites to visitors and promoting visits through advertising and high profile overseas tours of antiquities (Weeks and Hetherington, 2006). Ironically, the benefits of expanding Egypts tourism are being out weigh by the negative aspects. Lambert (2011) states that a bustling tourist industry is sadly known to be a double-edged sword. She added that, as most archaeological sites are very fragile and ancient, they were not meant to accommodate thousands of visitors on a daily basis. The overcrowding of tourists visiting, touching and stepping onto these sites, are destroying many archaeological attractions. One such incident happened in February of 1988. A chunk of limestone fell from the Egyptian Sphinx, the half lion, half man relic built by the ancient Egyptians over 4,000 years ago. Recently on January 2011, Egypts Supreme Council of Antiquities had announced plans to close the tomb of Tutankhamen to tourists by the end of the year. The tomb, which was discovered some 89 years ago, was damaged as a result of the overwhelming visits of tourist, particularly over the past three decades (http://www.redorbit.com). The mass tourism in Egypt has also impacted the Valley of the Kings, altering the physical and natural aspects of the environment. According to Gaetano Palumbo, the program director for North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia for the World Monuments Fund, a New York-based nonprofit dedicated to preserving and protecting endangered historical sites around the world: One could say that, the heritage sites in Egypt are victims of their own success. In the Valley of the Kings, Luxor, visitor numbers have almost doubled in the past 10 years, from 1.5 million to close to 3 million, with peaks of 10,000 visitors a day. This creates massive problems in visitor management. Drastic decisions may have to be taken in order to regulate visitor numbers, including temporary or permanent closures of ancient sites.   Due to poor tourism and cultural heritage management, Bindlegas (1997) states that the decay of some of the worlds most fabulous ancient relics has been happening at a shocking rate. These major archaeological and cultural heritage sites represent the origins of human civilization and provide the best evidences of the historical and cultural development of humanity (Global Heritage Fund, 2010). If measures are not taken to start preserving and conserving the ancient monuments, it will be completely destroyed within centuries. However, increasing the tourism receipts into Egypt and on the other hand, conserving these heritage sites is not as simple as it seems. Leask (2006) described that balancing the development of tourism opportunities and heritage conservation activities has been a continuous struggle for countries with tourism and cultural heritage management. The different parties involved are unable to decide on the same agreement, resulting in the lack of proper management that can benefit both the tourism and conservation of the ancient Egyptian archaeological sites and treasures. Therefore this paper aims to identify the variables that constitute and associate to the impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt. AIM To assess the impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt OBJECTIVES To review secondary literature about the environmental impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt. To study the conflict between heritage and tourism in Egypt. To assess the management and conservation of archaeological sites in Egypt. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW DEFINING TOURISM According to the Advance Release of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) World Tourism Barometer, international tourism showed a strong recovery of almost 7% to 935 million in 2010, from the 4% decline during the global economic crisis in 2009. Through the decades, tourism is now known as one of the largest industry in the world, experiencing dynamic improvements and intense diversification, leading it to become one of the worlds fastest growing economic sector (e.g.: Youell, 1998; World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2011)). Therefore, prior to assessing the impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt, it is first essential to define and understand the term tourism. Even in early researches, the term tourism had yielded, as many definitions as there were many studies of phenomenon (Cohen, 1974, cited in Wall and Mathieson, 2006). Guyer-Feuler who concentrated on the economical and statistical aspects of tourism, conceived the first definition of tourism in 1905, where it defined tourism as: A phenomenon unique to modern time which is dependent on the peoples increasing need for a change and relaxing, the wish of recognizing the beauties of nature and art and the belief that nature gives happiness to human beings and which helps nations and communities approaching to each other thanks to the developments in commerce and industry and the communication and transportation tools becoming excellent. (Bahar, 2005: 2, as cited in Esen and Uyar, 2010) The origin of the term tourism goes back to the 17th century where the root word tour is derived from the Hebrew word torah which means learning and examining. People who were sent on a voyage to explore distant areas to learn the social activities of the population living in those places are known by the Hebrews as tourist and the behaviour as touring. (Bahar, 2005) Some other few pioneers who attempted to define tourism were Professor Hunzikar and Krapf (1941, cited in Holloway, 1994:1) of Berne University who states that it is: The sum of phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-resident, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected to any earning activity. Holloway (1994) then continues that tourism, besides being associated as a form of recreation or leisure; it might be where individuals or a group of individuals travel away from home. However, Holloway (1994) also questioned the specificity of the statement on whether tourism is defined by its purpose or the distance travelled. Indeed, it is a common perception and a popular understanding amongst people that the central aspects of tourism evolves around holidays, leisure and tours, engaging in different kinds of activities to have a good time and as long as being in a foreign land, it is considered to be tourism regardless of the distance travelled. However, tourism is more than just a cursory explanation of leisure, recreation and being in a foreign land. In 1993, after much reviews, researches and further analysis on existing works of tourism definitions, the UNWTO (1993, cited in Youell, 1998:9), with co-operations from many international organizations, finally announced the officially accepted definition as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. Therefore with the multitude of tourism definitions given by researchers and studies, which of these, can academics, organizations and professionals use as an accurate guideline in the tourism industry? In spite of the existence of many variations of tourism definitions and the popularity of tourism studies in recent decades, it has been discussed and acknowledged by academic researchers, organizations and industry professionals that there has been no specific means in defining the principal concept of the term tourism due to its large complex nature of subject, involving diverse combinations of disciplines and industry sectors (e.g.: Morley, 1990; Youell, 1998; Goeldner, Ritchie and McIntosh, 2000; Dredge and Jenkins, 2007). Moreover, regardless of the complications of specifying definitions for tourism, tourism is nothing without the tourists. The main factor that drives tourism is the tourists who are travelling and therefore any effort to understand tourism as a concept has to first understand the motivations behind the tourists decision to travel. Also, the definition of tourism is dependent on an individuals perspectives and perception of tourism and also how it will fit into a particular purpose or situation (Dredge and Jenkins, 2007). In addition, the changes of the different definitions since the early 1900s till the present day demonstrates that tourism can no longer be associated to merely economics and geography (Arlt, 2010). As time passes with the continuous growth of the industry, researches into the concepts of tourism will persist to expand, eventually resulting in the creation of more definitions of tourism. IMPACTS OF TOURISM Tourism is an integration of close interactions involving the dynamic relationships of different variables or elements in the tourism travel process and thus, it can never be a standalone unit. Hence, any changes or effects to a variable will create a ripple effect within the whole tourism structure. With this, contributions made by the growth of the tourism industry will therefore lead to an increased economic activity within the country. Countries are increasingly becoming dependent on tourism, as it is one of the most rational and sustainable development choices that have the capability of creating employment to the communities and also acting as a main provision of foreign earnings to the economy. (UNWTO, 2010 Tourism and the Millennium Development Goals) While it is often the economic impacts of tourism that businesses and public organizations that are usually interested in (Stynes, 1999), the late twentieth century saw the emergence of environmental and socio-cultural impacts of tourism being controversial and critical issues discussed in tourism study (Youell, 1998). As the main objective of this paper aims to concentrate on the impacts of heritage tourism on the archaeological sites in Egypt, this section will therefore provide an overview of the positive and negative influences that tourism, in general, have on the economic, environment and socio-culture around the world. Economic Impacts It is predicted that by 2020, revenues earned from the tourism industry will be $1.5 trillion (Kumar and Prasad, n.d). Tourism being declared as one of the worlds largest industry is similar to any other businesses and industries; affecting the economy by generating income for the countrys economy, stimulating job opportunities for the people from the international level down to the local levels. Increasing competiveness amongst countries has also pushed the business capacity of the tourism industry to the level of, or, sometimes even exceeding trade commodities such as oil and food exports (UNWTO, 2011). Tourism being a major player in the service sector is naturally dependent on labor therefore stimulating a great deal of employment opportunities both in developed and developing countries. The fact that tourism is an intergration of many various individual elements in a tourism travel process, the economic impacts from tourism will therefore affect industries in the construction sector, agriculture sector, commercial services sector such as retail and customer services and also the health and finance sector (e.g.: Wall and Mathieson, 2006; ÃÆ'-nder and Durgu, 2007). Tourist expenditures contributing to the balance of payments through foreign exchange earnings, and revenue generated from tourism developments can represent a crucial source of income for a nations economy (Balaguer Cantavella-Jorda, 2002, cited in Seetanah, 2010). However on a negative note, seasonal tourism also known as induced employment, being influenced by the increase in the demand and supply of tourism causes the increase of low-paying jobs and often creating unemployment during off-peak seasons (Kreag, 2001). Peak periods of tourism can benefit the economy of a country, however on the expense of the locals, who might have to pay for the higher prices of goods and services in the community, thus increasing their cost of living. However, contributions of tourism to a countrys economic benefits is relative to factors such as the availability of facilities and resources, the countrys social and political stability, the host communities behavior towards tourist and the amount of investment injected by the government into tourism projects and development (Youell, 1998). Environmental Impacts The relationship between tourism and the physical environment, natural or man-made, is firmly interlinked and complicated. Controversial debates of tourism and the environment have been going on in determining whether they are friends or foes. The physical environment is an important aspect of tourism; it ensures the sustainability of attracting tourism in the long run. In fact, it is impossible to define the different types of tourism without the inclusion of the environment (Safakli, n.d). A tourists decision to travel and the duration of stay depends on the physical environment of the destination. According to Olali (2000), the estimation given by academics states that in the next 100 years, the environment will be the only option that will determine the demand of tourism. The environmental impacts of tourism can be categorised into two categories which are postive and negative impacts, and finding a balanced relationship with the environment is uncommon, if not, there is hardly a balanced relationship (Holden, 2000). The negative impacts of tourism on the environment caused by the increased in tourist visitations are visible through the changes, damages and depletion of natural resources, causing the destruction of wildlife habitat, improper waste disposal, air and water pollutions, and also erosion of the natural landscape such as the mountains and historical sites (e.g.: Youell, 1998; Holden, 2000; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001; Wall and Mathieson, 2006). The lack of facilities and space to accommodate the increase in tourist visitations results in the overcrowding and the over usage of an environment, therefore also increasing improper waste disposal, loss of significant attractions and unethical behaviors due to the lack of supervision over the large number of visitors. The detrimental state of the environment will then lose its beauty and attractiveness to these tourists therefore causing a decline in tourist visitations. Despite of the attention on the negative impacts of tourism on the environment, there are still positive impacts of tourism that benefits the environment. Contradictory to the cause of degradation of these natural resources, the motivating factor behind a tourists decision to travel to these places are based on the sentimental attachment they have with the environments (Kreag, 2001). And because these environments are what attracted tourists visits in the first place, preservation efforts are heighened to keep them well managed, and protected from further deterioration. The positive environmental impacts of tourism are sometimes associated to the economic value of tourism earned revenue (Holden, 2000). The increase of tourism travel to a destination also increases the tourism funds flowing into the countrys economy. This additional funds allows governments to use the added revenue from its tourist industry to implement measures into proper management and invest in the restoration of the environment such as construction of new roads to accommodate overcrowding of vehicles, building and upgrading facilities to attract or accommodate the influx of visitors and installing modern technologies into the conservation and preservation of sensitive areas (e.g.: UNEP, 2001; Kreag, 2001). And as tourism travel increases, the impacts on the environment are also increasing. Therefore, it is of utmost importance for government agencies and tourism organizations to focus on the preservation and conservation of the environment. When the environment is restored to its original state or even better, the flow of visitors into the destination will resume once again. However if there is a lack of proper management or close facilitation of the situation, the environment will eventually return back to its damaged state. The attempt to balance the positive and negative aspects of the impacts of tourism on the environment tends go round a vicious cycle. This is where the importance of strategic planning intervenes and it is a crucial part of sustainable tourism of a destination. Socio-cultural Impacts The inclusion of social impact studies is an essential criterion for any tourism industry and tourism government agencies planning for a sustainable tourism industry as it provides an insight of the support for tourism development within host communities (e.g.: Nyaupane and Thapa, 2006; Zhang et al., 2006; Tovar and Lockwood, 2008; Deery, Jago and Fredline, 2011). Social cultural impacts on a destinations society such as traditions, identity, lifestyle, values and customs, are the results of the direct and indirect interactions between the host communities, the tourists and the tourism industry. These impacts of tourism development on the local society are identified through the evaluation of residents perceptions and behaviors towards tourism (Tovar and Lockwood, 2008). Regardless of the magnitude of the fluctuations of tourism demand, the impact on the host community will not only be dependent on the number of tourist arrivals but the type of tourist (Holloway, 2002). Of which, the se impacts can either have a positive or negative influence on the society. Firstly, improvements of infrastructures resulted from tourism development such as clean water and stable telecommunications, improved transportation and banking services, and new business investments are positive impacts that contributes in enriching the local communities way of life (http://www.gawler.sa.gov.au). Tourism also helps in boosting the quality of life in the society and provides opportunities for locals to experience cultural exchange and interactions with the rest of the world. The accumulative experience gained from engaging in the cultural exchange with visitors enhances the host communities ability to interact comfortably and confidently with future potential visitors in the long run. Having an influx of tourist arrivals to a destination can also encourage the preservation and conservation of cultural values and traditional customs which are in danger of losing its identity. The increased interest of tourists into the culture and traditions of the local society also helps to push the demand for historical and cultural education and local tourism agencies will be pressured to step up on preservation and conservation of possible endangered ancient sites, monuments or artifacts (Kreag, 2001). Despite of the positive and inspiring socio-cultural impacts of tourism on a host environment, the negative impacts of tourism, on the other hand, can equally cause a prominent damage on a culture. Ironically, instead of riviving a lost culture, the continuous development of tourism driven by the influx of tourist demand can very well cause the same cultural identity and value of the host communities to change and this issue has raised concerns amongst tourism organizations. This normally happens when local communites conformed to the needs, wants and desires of tourists expectations in the bid to respond to their growing demands. As such, this conformity leads to the commercialization of local culture into a commodity and the modification of traditional art and craft forms, resulting it to become reconstructed ethnicity which might end up causing the eradication of cultural goods (www.coastlearn.org). One of the negative aspect on the social status of a culture is the social differences between the host and the tourists. According to Mathieson and Wall (2006), more often than not, social tensions between host communities and tourists happens in developing countries whereby the tourist market are from a country with higher foreign currency rate than the host communities and thus unintentionally highlighting the disparity of wealth. They also mentioned that since the nature of tourism involves the movement of people around geographical locations, social conflicts occur as a result of differences in cultures, values, lifestyles and languages. TOURISM AND HERITAGE Defining Heritage in Tourism With the growth of the tourism sector, the types of tourist are also diversified and the collection of individual experiences of these tourists influence the different types of tourism offered today, thus the formation of the different types of tourism (Timothy and Boyd, 2003). Heritage tourism has been one of the oldest forms of tourism offered since the early ages, however in recent years, it has grown to popularity in the industry. It is the inheritance of the unrepeatable products of life from the past that is worth preserving for the benefits admiration and education of the current and future generations (e.g.: Nurick, 2000; Timothy and Boyd, 2003; Sethi, 2005; National Trust, 2011). Heritage could be anything that is tangible or intangible left behind by the past such as archaeological or historical sites that have been preserved, natural landscapes which are of a destinations significance, artifacts and documents, culture, values and sometimes even the people of the past such as the indigenous people. However over the years, heritage has been modified and commercialized to suit tourists demand and expectations, allowing it to be more accessible, attractive, educational and entertaining (Fyall and Rakic, 2006). Heritage itself as a concept has entered on to a global stage and penetrated into the local, regional and national arena (Burnett, 2001). The World Tourism Organization (WTO) states that heritage and culture have become an important element in almost 40 per cent of all international trips taken and despite of recession, heritage tourism still continued to grow (Hanna, 1993, cited in Timothy and Boyd, 2003). The different types of heritage attractions offered now are varse and wide, examples includes natural history attractions, religious attractions, sociocultural attractions, art galaries, ancestral dwellings, and genocide monuments. Fyall and Rakic (2006) adds that the demand for heritage based tourism has been on the rise because Lowenthal (1979) states that peoples sentimental reminensce of the past is deeply affected by the parallel ongoing eradication of historical antiquities while on the other hand, Hannabuss (1999) also claims that heritage enthusiasts are immersing themsevles in heritage for the purpose of finding a rational explanation for their post-modern lives. With the controversial issues happening in everyday life, it is no wonder that heritage behaves as a touchstone in reminding people the primary essence of life. Hence, an attempt to understand the demand of heritage tourism could best be determined by initiating a study on visitor psychographic characteristics as these visitors are the primary factors pushing the demand for heritage tourism. Determining the visitor demographics can also aid in better planning and management of visitor capacity control in relation to preservation and conservati on of the heritage sites which will be discussed further in the next section. According to Hall and McArthur (1993a, as cited in Timothy and Boyd, 2003), the significance of heritage can be categorised into four different areas in relation to its economic, social, political and scientific significance. The economic significance of heritage refers to the value of the heritage to visitors, in terms of the amount of revenue earned from visitations to the sites. The social significance refers to the personal identification that individuals have to associate themselves with their heritage. In terms of its political significance, the representations of heritage can behave as an aid in managing political issues due to its political nature behind its existance. Finally, heritage educates visitors on its history, culture and the population of a destination. It also acts as a benchmark for ecological studies on the environments and ecosystems, therefore presenting itself as a scientific significance to the people (ibid.). Impacts of Tourism on Heritage Through the globalization and increasing competiveness of the tourism industry, governments, tourism organizations and agencies are continuously pushed into the whirlpool of sustainable tourism development. Bramwell and Lane (1993) states that sustainable tourism development can be implemented if the balance of the economic, environmental and social aspects of the development is realised. It is certain that every country in the world will definitely have a heritage background attached to them, however, what makes heritage tourism in a country unique is the exclusiveness of the actual heritage product itself. The characteristics and uniqueness of that particular heritage product dictates the different types of visitors and the demand of heritage tourism in the destination. With tourism, comes impacts. As mentioned in earlier sections, tourism impacts the economy, environment and the socialcultural aspects of a destination. Likewise, heritage tourism being categorised into the four different aspects of significance, will therefore impact the economy, evironment and socialcultural aspects of a destination. An influx of tourist visitations can positively or negatively affect the destination in many aspects. Prosperity of the economy, job creations, improved quality of life are some of the positive impacts whilst seasonal unemployment, social tensions, pollution of the environment are some of the negative impacts. However when it comes to heritage, tourism is known to be impacting the environmental and sociocultural aspect of the destination more often than the economical aspect, unless otherwise, the countrys tourism economy is highly dependent on heritage tourism. Tourism is known to have an intitmate relationship with the matters of heritage conservatio n and preservation; a significant element in deciding the survival of a countrys heritage Hence, the impacts caused by tourism on heritage sites are in ways similar to that of a natural environment (pollution, lost of habitat, lost of attractiveness), however, the results and repercussions are amplified due to the uniqueness of the heritage enviroment that can never have an exact replica elsewhere in the world. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Heritage Sites in Egypt Demand of Tourism in Egypt IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON HERITAGE IN EGYPT Politcal Issues in Egypt CHAPTER THREE: ANALYSIS GROWTH OF TOURISM IN EGYPT Tourism and Heritage in Egypt The term history can be best epitomized by the ancient Egyptian civilization than to any other ancient culture (Grimal, 1994). Egypt is probably the worlds oldest civilization from the  Nile Valley  since the 3,100 BC and is reputable for its extensive collection of historical record on civilization and the immense wealth of knowledge (SIS, 2011). Five thousand years ago, a glimpse start of Egyptss tourism began with the start of cruising (Goeldner, Ritchie and McIntosh, 2000). Queen Hatshepsuts first cruise journey is recorded on the walls of the Temple of Deit El Bahari in Luxor, where it states that the purpose of cruising at that era was for peace and tourism (ibid.). However the genesis of heritage tourism in Egypt could mainly be attributed by the smart and innovative grandeur infrastructure of the Pharaonic burial tombs such as the Sphinx and the other ancient Egyptian pyramids, which saw the first early arrivals of tourists. The start of tourism playing as a core role in the economy of Egypt came with the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 and after being announced by Khedive (Viceroy) Ismail that Egypt was to be part of Europe (www.thelonelyplanet.com). The Nile, Luxor, the ancient Pyramids of Giza and temples are what defines Egypt as a heritage destination. Egypts ancient civilization is an evidence of the evolution of mankind from the prehistoric days till the present. The rich history of Egypt acts as a connection to the distant past of humanity, which reveals mankinds greatest glories and achievements. Current Status of Egypts Tourism Industry Tourism in Egypt is a huge lucrative business that has flourish and become a major component in the economic development. Millions of tourists are travelling to Egypt each year, for the purpose of appreciating the abundance of the natural and historical phenomenon within the country (www.greenstarhotel.net). In 1995, international vis

A Data Collection Methods Psychology Essay

A Data Collection Methods Psychology Essay 3.0 Introduction In chapter three, all the data previously collected will be analysed to test against the hypotheses. The result generated will show the relationship between the 4 independent variables and stress. Research design, data collection methods, sample design, research instrument, construct measurement, data processing and data analysis of the study are also discussed in this chapter. 3.1 Research Design In this research, the researchers analyse the unit of undergraduates in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. They are analyzed using cross-sectional studies based on the relationship between stress and undergraduates stress factors. Survey is conducted to collect data because this research covers a large numbers of target respondents in different geographical areas (Sekaran, 2003). Besides that, research design can be altered during data collection stage of the survey (Groves, 1989). Moreover, survey is cost efficient and quick (Zikmund, 2003). Self-administered questionnaires will be distributed to the undergraduates in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor and collected immediately upon completion. 3.2 Data Collection Methods Primary and secondary data firm the basis of this research which provides helpful and appropriate information in this study. Primary data is gathered from the respondents through questionnaires. On the other hand, researchers collected information from online information databases as the sources of secondary data. 3.2.1 Primary Data Malhotra (2007) defined primary data as the information collected for the first time specifically for a research project. These data collected originates from first-hand experience called as primary data (Zikmund, 2003). Questionnaire is one of the standardized and familiar methods of most of the researchers where data are obtained without bias. As mentioned in Zikmund (2003), questionnaire is the main tool to gather opinions, perception, direct expression and descriptions from respondents and make the data more comparable and amenable for analysis. Hence, self-administered questionnaire is researchers choice to collect primary data in order to increase the dependability and simplicity of data in this research. According to Ministry of Higher Education (2010), most universities and colleges are located in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor (Appendix A). Hence, primary data was collected from respondents through 250 sets of questionnaires which were distributed randomly by hand in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. According to Ministry of Higher Education (2010), most of the undergraduates are located in selected target universities. The targeted universities included public universities such as Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM), Universiti Malaya (UM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), and private universities such as Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UniKL), Unisel Universiti Selangor (UNISEL) and Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR). Around 10 minutes are spent by each target respondent to complete the questionnaires which are immediately collected under the supervision of researchers. 3.2.2 Secondary Data According to Sekaran (2003), secondary data is the information from previously published or compiled sources by researchers for certain purposes which are related to historical data to support our research study. Secondary data included scholarly books, articles in journals, textbooks, government and private sources and online information database. Furthermore, obtaining secondary data is easier, cost and time effective but such data may be obsolete and inaccurate to fulfil researchers requirements in of present investigation compared to primary data (Zikmund, 2003). From the beginning of research, secondary data is used to review the similar literature study from online information databases such as EBSCOhost, JSTOR and ProQuest and other databases provided by Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR)s website. In addition, Internet search engine such as Google Scholar is also used by researchers to develop other related material in this research. 3.3 Sampling Design 3.3.1 Target Population This research focuses on the study of stress factors among undergraduates in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. Therefore, the target population will be the undergraduates in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. 3.3.2 Sampling Frame and Sampling Location There is no sampling frame in this research and the questionnaires will be distributed at universities in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. Since most of the universities (Ministry of Higher Education, 2010) are located in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor respectively, the researchers have chosen these two areas to conduct their study. The location of Malaysian universities will be showed in Appendix A. 3.3.3 Sampling Elements The sampling elements are the undergraduates studying in universities in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. They will be randomly selected for questionnaires survey as suicide cases for undergraduates in Malaysia are getting serious (Kok et al., 2011). 3.3.4 Sampling Techniques Besides that, quota sampling will be targeted at public and private universities and at 64% (160 questionnaires) and 36% (90 questionnaires) respectively since the figures provided by the Ministry of Higher Education (2008) indicated that the numbers of undergraduates in public and private universities are 247,881 and 140,669 students respectively in 2007. 3.3.5 Sampling Size To determine the regression of sample size, Green (1991) indicated that N>50+8m were N is the sample size and m is the number of independent variables. Since, there are 4 independent variables in this study, therefore m is equal to 4. Hence, n=50+8(4)=82, which means that the sampling size required should be more than 82 target respondents. However, according to Denscome (2007), usually the research sampling should involve between 30 to 250 cases. Therefore, researchers will distribute 250 questionnaires to the target respondents for more accuracy in results. 3.4 Research Instrument Questionnaires method is an efficient technique for collecting data in which the respondents need to answer a set of questions presented by the researcher in order to obtain information (Zikmund, Babin Griffin, 2010). In addition, Sekaran (2003) defined that questionnaire is a pre-planned set of questions for respondents to answer which enables the researches to know exactly what is needed and how to evaluate the variables of interest. Normally, the self-administered questionnaires can be personally distributed to the target respondents by hand. Besides, in order to ensure that the questionnaires components and measurement scales are properly designed and are easily understood by respondents, a pilot test had to be conducted. 3.4.1 Questionnaires Design Self-administered questionnaires are chosen to conduct the study in this research. Researchers distribute questionnaires to respondents and collect them after the response. This method is used because the direct contact with respondents. The whole process is done fast, efficiently, ensuring richness of data and involving a large numbers of respondents (Rattray Jones, 2005). Questionnaires method is a better way to make comparison and judgment then interviewing respondents (Field, 2003). Besides, closed-ended questions are used to construct standardised questionnaires in order to reduce bias and assist researchers in coding the information and simplify the data compilation process. English is international language and widely used in Malaysia, hence it is used in designing the questionnaires. 3.4.2 Pilot Test According to Zikmund (2003), pilot test is a small assessment designed to investigate the logistics and obtain information prior to a larger study in order to improve the questionnaires quality and efficiency. The pilot test can disclose the deficiencies of the questionnaires before proceeding to large scale studies. Researchers have distributed 30 questionnaires to the target respondents from UTAR to test the reliability and internal consistency of the questionnaires in order to ensure whether it is comprehensive and able to implement the real survey. 3.5 Constructs Measurement 3.5.1 Scale Measurement In order to enrich the description in research, the most common way is to perform measurement which is a process of assigning numbers to the research objects (Brown, 2011). There are four types of measurement scale which includes nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale. Each of these scales has its own functions and helps to differentiate the variables. There are three types of measurement scales used in this research which are nominal, ordinal and interval. Nominal scale is categorizing by assigning number labelling to objects based on its nature, for example measurement on genders. Subsequently, ordinal scale is categorizing data by ranking or order, where datum are expressed orderly such as firstly and followed by. Interval scale is to show order of things, however the equal intervals between objects represents equal differences. Likert scale is a form of interval scale where it is the most suitable to describe opinion measurement (Brown, 2011). In this research, a five points Likert scale is used by dividing the interval scale into five points to distinguish the degree of agreement and disagreement in each statement. The pointer starts from number 1 to number 5 which represent strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree. Moreover, the questionnaires are divided into Section A, Section B and Section C. Section A consists of demographic profile of the target respondents, the questions of which are designed to collect their demographic information such as gender, age, race, and so on. Section B investigates the factors of stress of the undergraduates using the 5 point Likert scale. The scale is used to examine the agreement of the four independent variables that influence students perceptions about their selection of stress factors of stress that contributes to stress. In Section C, questions on current level of overall stress of undergraduates are being used to examine how significant the factors of stress will influence their stress by using the 5 point Likert scale. 3.6 Data Processing The raw data collected from survey questionnaire need to be analysed in order to provide useful information in resolving the research questions. All data collected are needed to undergo a series process before it can serve the purpose of being analyse. This data processing is a process that includes questionnaire checking, data editing, coding, transcribing and cleaning before the analysis made (Zikmund, 2003). 3.6.1 Questionnaire Checking Questionnaire checking is a process that identifies, corrects, and resolves any errors or problems which may occur in the questionnaires. The questionnaires are being checked and amended numerously to ensure error free, followed by an approval from the supervisor to ensure the questions asked are of highest quality, appropriate and comprehensible by respondents. 3.6.2 Data Editing Data editing is performed to ensure high accuracy of the data. Missing data is being discarded while extremely contrasting data is being removed to ensure consistency and to prevent any undesirable results outcome. 3.6.3 Data Coding Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) program requires all data to be in code form, so the data are being coded before being keyed into. Therefore, prior to the questionnaire distribution, data coding are being done by assigning code to each option of answers in the questionnaire. In the research questionnaire, respondents are required to fill up their demographic profiles. Coding was being made on each question with the first answer on each question coded as 1 while the second answer is coded as 2 and so on. For example, in Section A the first question is on genders and the answer is either male or female. The code for male is 1 while female is 2. Subsequently, Section B requires respondents opinion regarding five different stress factors in their daily life. The five different stress factors also known as independent variables include financial issues, academic issues, social support issues and time management issues. As for Section C, the questionnaire focuses questions regarding stress level for the past four weeks of respondents life which are the dependent variables in the research. Both sections require respondents to respond to their level of agreement and disagreement by using the 5 Likert scale. The 5 levels of agreement are: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. The code for strongly agree is 5, agree is coded as 4, neutral is coded as 3, disagree coded as 2 and lastly strongly disagree is coded as 1. 3.6.4 Data Transcribing After all questionnaires are retrieved, the answers to the questionnaires are converted into code data which are subsequently being keyed manually into Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) for further analysis. 3.6.5 Data Cleaning With the help of Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), the checking process is enhanced ensuring consistent data. Any extreme data is easily identified and replaced with a more consistent data. Furthermore, missing data can to be detected thus ensuring no data is missed out during transcribing process. 3.7 Data Analysis The Computer program that is being used to analyze questionnaire data is Statistical Package for the Social Science program (SPSS) which includes descriptive analysis and inferential analysis. To ensure that target respondents have a clear understanding of the questionnaires, a pilot test will be conducted before distributing them to respondents. 3.7.1 Descriptive Analysis Descriptive analysis consist of measurement of mode, mean, frequency, range, standard deviation and variance. The researchers use it to analyses the demographic data in the questionnaires (Han, 2010).The research data will be summarized by calculating the average, frequency, range and standard deviation. Consequently, mode, mean, frequency, range, standard deviation and variance are calculated based on the interval scale of 4 independent variables and dependent variable. 3.7.2 Reliability Test A reliability test will be conducted to make sure the measures are free from error. Cronbachs Alpha reliability test model is selected to measure the reliability of the questionnaires and 0 to 1 is used to assess the reliability of data collected. According to Nunnally and Bernstein (1994)s study (as cited in Krishnan Ramasamy, 2011), an alpha of 0.7 is an acceptable reliability coefficient level and acts as the minimum requirement for validity. 3.7.3 Normality Test Normality test is used for the purpose of checking the normality of the data set (Archila, 2010). When the sampling size is more than 100, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is used to test the normality of the sample data. The p-value will indicate whether the data is significantly different. When the p-value is more than 0.05 the data set could be assumed as normal (Islam, 2011). 3.7.4 Inferential Analysis Inferential analysis using Pearsons correlation and multiple is used to test whether the hypothesis is substantial. 3.7.4.1 Pearson Correlation Pearsons correlation measure the degree of interrelation between the dependent and independent variables (Mudelsee, 2003). Doss and Kamery (2006) mentioned that Pearsons correlation is used to test whether the relationship between variables exists. Hence, it is being used to determine whether the relationship between the financial issues, academic issues, social support issues, time management issues and stress faced by undergraduates exist. The relationship depends on Pearsons correlation outcome. The range of outcome is between -1 to 1. Positive outcome indicates a positive relationship between variables and vice versa. 0 outcome indicates no relationship between both variables (Doss et al., 2006). 3.7.4.2 Multiple Regressions Multiple regression analysis will be used for identifying which independent variable influences dependent variable the most (Hair, Babin, Money Samuel, 2003). Multiple regressions are able to examine the relationship between dependent and independent variables (Orme Buehler, 2001). Hence, it is used to evaluate the relationship between financial issues, academic issues, social support issues, time management issues and stress faced by undergraduates. Since the researcher used interval data measurement scale on dependent and independent variables where both variables are parametric, the general equation for the multiple regressions is (Yount, 2006). Therefore, the multiple regressions equation in this research is developed as 3.8 Conclusion This chapter consists of research design, data collection methods, sampling design, research instrument, constructs measurement, data processing and data analysis which are used to collect data for analysis. In chapter four, the researchers will examine the pattern of and analysis of the result which are collected from relevant target respondents.

Firewalls VS Nudity :: essays research papers

Starbuxman (11:45:02 PM): trying to defend firewalls should be a crime ELITE BOO (11:46:17 PM): im not defending them, its only the facts. plus if you try to make that a crime, the world of computers would just laugh at your face ELITE BOO (11:48:02 PM): btw, trying to download from nbci was a bitch, i had to create my own html file to link to them, twice! Starbuxman (11:48:40 PM): the facts are a simpler, cleaner system is the way to go. Virus protection, firewalls and other idiocy only inhibit progress. and the firewall would indeed inhibit an installation if it were one of the many programs/crap/variables free on the internet. Each time i send someone on AIM a file, they have to disable the firewall. This is lost time. Starbuxman (11:48:58 PM): And NBCI isn't a bitch (or if it is, dont say it) rthey use PHP, atfer all Starbuxman (11:49:08 PM): and sexy apache ELITE BOO (11:50:24 PM): ive always had a firewall on while you sending me something through aim and never had to turn it off, shows how much you know about the ELITE BOO (11:50:25 PM): m Starbuxman (11:50:52 PM): hey senor i know plenty. kevin has a firewall. he has to turn it off. ELITE BOO (11:51:01 PM): without having a firewall installed on your pc is a perfomance of idiocy ELITE BOO (11:51:27 PM): kevin's firewall therefor sucks or he has not configured it properly Starbuxman (11:51:49 PM): and youre the one who uses it -- youre te one whos lacking in knowledge. performance - another reason why firewalls can suck it -- theyre one more thing that inhibits my computers performance ELITE BOO (11:51:58 PM): firewalls dont only come in the form of software niether, they are more common as hardware ELITE BOO (11:52:41 PM): if a firewall lacks your computers perfomance so much that you notice it, then its quite obvious that your computer sucks Starbuxman (11:52:59 PM): my old computer did suck. Starbuxman (11:53:01 PM): and in those cases theyre not only all of the above, theyre expensive. basically theres not a single reason to use firewalls but to protect you from yourself. Starbuxman (11:53:14 PM): hardware. oy. Starbuxman (11:53:29 PM): now youre making it an expense too. no thanks. ELITE BOO (11:55:33 PM): of course there expensive, but its a single payment of 24hr protection... and how the hell can you say the only use of a firewall is to protect

Shockwave Rider :: essays research papers

There are numerous books on the science fiction market, that deal with the myriad of possibilities involving the technology of the future. John Brunner's book, 'Shockwave Rider,'; is one of the most popular, as well as one of the most famous, books dealing with this issue. Brunner presents many different realities to the reader, and they are all potentially very realistic in terms of the current state of technology. For the most part, Brunner seems to illustrate that technology, as it relates to the world wide datanet, is a good thing. This is not to say that he does not illustrate it as a very negative reality in the world he presents to the reader, but he does indicate that the world wide datanet and technology has great potential to make the world a better place for all concerned. In Brunner's book we have a reality that is incredibly tense, and almost plausible today. The space that the author deals with is filled with endless bits of information (information overload to be more precise), corporate domination, and it appears, just like many science fiction books that deal with the planet earth in the future, everything is known about everyone. there are no secrets from the system. Brunner illustrates this as a reality that is not necessarily very desirable. He plants a character, Nickie Haflinger, onto the scene. As with many books we can look at this character and see the author within. Haflinger is a prodigy whose talents allow him to switch identities with a simple phone call. By the advanced technology and the ingenuity that is completely Haflinger's, we see that the author is not one to be content with the realities that may be a possibility in the future of technology. Brunner clearly illustrates, by the previous description of Haflinger, that technology and the advances within that field, are incredibly beneficial, or they can be. but he is clearly unhappy with the way things have turned out due to the controlling nature of the governments. This is further illustrated in the fact that Brunner's hero is a young man who is bent on changing the world. He struggles to evade the officials and uses all skills available to him, whether inherent skills or technological ones, to the best of his ability, to put an end to the misuse of power that is so much a part of his world which involves the entity of the world wide datanet. Perhaps, one of the most insightful parts of the book comes in the first half, when Haflinger is experiencing flashbacks due to interrogations. It is in these sections that we see the inner mind of Brunner as he deflty

computer virus :: essays research papers

Overview In the following report, â€Å"computer viruses† will be explained in detail. A lengthy and informative description of the evolution and history on microcomputer viruses will be given, to give you a background of their origin for some understanding of how they came to be. The next segment in the report is on how to combat computer viruses with the development of anti-virus applications. The current status of microcomputer viruses will also be discussed, naming the most common types of viruses and the most harmful type at this present point in time. Details of the most recent outbreaks of computer viruses, such as the â€Å"Melissa†, â€Å"I Love You† and the most recent â€Å"Anna Kournikova† viruses will be explained, and why they are so harmful. I will also give you my recommendations on how to combat this threat of computer viruses, what Anti-virus Applications that I believe should be used, and why updating your virus definitions for these programs on a regular basis is so vital and important in your quest to have a happy and uninfected computer. And finally, I give you my conclusion in which I can only hope that you will find helpful. A History Of Computer Viruses The term â€Å"Virus† was not used to describe a self-replicating computer program until the American electrical engineer named â€Å"Fred Cohen† associated the term with it in 1983. In the 1950’s at Bell Laboratories, â€Å"John von Neumann’s† theory in which he made in 1949 was put to the test. His theory stated that it was (MS Encarta 98, Virus [computer], History) â€Å"Theoretically possible for a computer program to replicate†. His theory was tested after a game called â€Å"Core Wars† was developed whereby (MS Encarta 98, Virus [computer], History) â€Å"Players created tiny computer programs that attacked, erased, and tried to propagate on an opponent’s system†. In the late 1960’s through to the early 1970’s, the program called â€Å"The Rabbit† was constantly appearing on the mainframes at the time. Kaspersky (www.avp.ch) â€Å"These programs cloned themselves, occupied system resources, thus lowering the productivity of the system†. These viruses were only localised, as they did not spread from one system to another and are thought to have only been pranks or mistakes by programmers. The â€Å"Univac 1108† and â€Å"IBM 360/370† systems were infected with one of the first known computer viruses, â€Å"Pervading Animal†. This virus attached itself to executable files, which damaged the infected file. In 1986 the first stealth virus hit IBM Compatible PC’s, called the â€Å"BRAIN† virus.

Manifest Destiny Essay

Manifest Destiny is defined as â€Å"a belief that it was God’s will that Americans spread over the entire continent, and to control and populate the country as they see fit.† Many expansionists conceived God as having the power to sustain and guide human destiny. It was white man’s heavy burden to conquer and Christianize the heathen and savage land. While the positive side of Manifest Destiny was a surge of enthusiasm and energy from the white settlers for pushing West, the negative side was the belief that the white man had the right to destroy anything and anyone — namely Indians — who got in the way. Tracing the path of Manifest Destiny across the West would highlight mass destruction of tribal organizations, confinement of Indians to reservations, and full blown genocide. The dark side of Manifest Destiny revealed the white man’s belief that his settlement of the land and civilization of its native peoples was preordained. While the whites were occupying the land, they decimated the Indian population, causing many tribes to flee their relentless onward push, or try to compromise with treaties and agreements. One such tribe to fall victim to the white encroachment upon their territory was the Nez Perce of North Western Oregon. The Nez Perce agreed to an 1855 treaty that guaranteed the tribe most of their traditional homeland in the Wallowa Valley of northeast Oregon to try to accommodate the white people who were beginning to invade their lands. Unfortunately, gold was soon discovered upon the Nez Perce land and the settlers wanted a larger portion of that land. The resulting 1863 treaty was agreed to by some tribal chiefs, but not all. Those who refused to sign were given an ultimatum in 1877, and rather than risk war, the non-treaty Nez Perce chiefs–Joseph, Looking Glass, White Bird, Toohoolhoolzote, Bald Head–decided to move their people onto the smaller remaining section of the reserva tion, towards Fort Lapwai. Look more:  manifest destiny essay There were nearly 800 of the Nez Perce–men, women and children–and a herd of about 2,000 Appaloosa horses on the trek. On the way to Lapwai, things fell apart. A few young warriors were goaded into taking revenge on several whites who had killed tribal members in the past, and the U.S. Army retaliated by attacking the Nez Perce at White Bird Canyon, Idaho. Giving up the attempt to move to the reservation, the Nez Perce chiefs resolved to  flee to the east and seek out their Crow allies in Montana. When the Crow tribes showed them no friendship and tried to steal their horses, the Nez Perce set off for Canada. They almost made it, but the U.S. Army caught up with them and defeated them 45 miles shy of the border. Although the Nez Perce were one of the welcoming tribes that met Lewis and Clark, their kind efforts led to revenge, misunderstanding, deceit, greed and death. Another tribe which was victimized by the United States were the Cupeà ±os. The Cupeà ±os were a small tribe, one of the smallest Native American tribes in Southern California. It was unlikely that they ever numbered more than 1,000 at a time. They once occupied a territory approximately 10 square miles in diameter in a region of the San Luis Rey River in the valley of San Jose de Valle. Before 1810, the Cupans had very little contact with outsiders — Spanish or otherwise. They had lived on their land for countless generations, their land including the medicinal hot springs and the village called Cupa. Unfortunately for the Cupenos, the pioneers who trekked West through the southern route, took a trail which trespassed upon their territory. To add insult to injury, American officials in San Diego concluded that a reasonable source of revenue would be taxation upon the Indians of the back country. The Cupans were assessed a $600 tax that with great resentment was finally paid by the villagers. By the late 1800’s the hot sulfur springs found on the Cupa territories were becoming very popular and attracting visitors from Los Angeles and San Diego. The popularity of the destination and the growing California population began the events which ultimately led to the expulsion of the Cupans from their homeland. Four years after California became a state, a land survey commission was formed, and cattleman Juan Jose Warner claimed 47,500 acres of what is now Warner Springs. Warner Springs makes up the majority of the Cupan homeland. The property was later purchased by former California Governor John Downey in 1880. Downey then filed a lawsuit — later pursued by his heirs after  his death — claiming title to the land and demanding eviction of the Cupenos from the property. The Cupas argued before the courts that Mexican law, as well as the peace treaty that ended the war between Mexico and the United States, ensured Indian rights and precluded the hostile takeover of their land. They argued to no avail. The California courts agreed with Downey and in 1901 the United States Supreme Court affirmed the judgment ordering removal of the Indians. President Rutherford Hayes, prompted by the Supreme Court holding, declared the Indians â€Å"trespassers† and ordered the tribe relocated to Pala, California, just beyond the Palomar Mountains where a 10,000-acre reservation had been established. Pala was a Luiseno reservation then, not Cupa. This act marked the first time in U.S. history that two distinct Indian tribes were herded together in one reservation. This was a blemish upon a nation that prided itself on leading the world into the 20th Century and the cultural and political renaissance that accompanied such a transition.